statistik
All research reports use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether you've done a customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a health care survey, or a marketing research survey. All have the same basic structure and format. The rationale is that readers of research reports (i.e., decision makers, funders, etc.) will know exactly where to find the information they are looking for, regardless of the individual report.
Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing a proposal, a thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.
The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher will ..." or "The research team will ...".
A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such, and you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper in perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
The researcher has chosen to study the language usage in the Philippines because the country is the classic example of local language policy. For over five hundred years this interference affected language usage in all sectors of life. The Philippine became an American territory on the day the Treaty of Paris was signed. The first and perhaps the master stroke in the plan to use education as an instrument of colonial policy, was the decision to use English as the medium of instruction. With American textbooks, Filipinos started learning not only a new language but also a new way of life, alien to their traditions. Based on Ethnological Databases in 1980, 52% of Filipinos in the Philippines claim to speak English as a second language. If accurate, this makes the Philippines one of the largest English speaking countries in the world. The use of English in almost every domain of Philippine life gave birth to a new variety of English, called Philippine English. Due to the multi-dialectical attribute of the Philippine, substrata varieties of Philippine English also exist (Agana, 1999).
Having lived and worked in the Philippines for a period of nearly eight nearly eight years, the researcher was constantly aware of the problems arising from this special situation. This personal experience will be invaluable in guiding the consideration of the issues and the proposals the researcher intends to make, based on this study, for future language policy.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The present language and educational situation serves as an impetus for the researcher to study the influences of the English language in the Philippines by tracing its presence and influences from the early 1800’s to the present by looking at the language and educational policies and programs formulated and implemented across the generations. In other words, the problem here deals with the historical development of English used in the Philippines and Filipino, the national language of the Philippines.
The problems to be discussed in this research are:
1. Why is English used as the medium of instruction in all schools and universities?
2. What is the importance of English usage in educational system in relation to student's social life and future opportunities?
To answer these questions, the writer embarked on an intensive research work geared towards the ample fulfillment of these answers and several outlying questions.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
The general objectives of this study are:
to analyze how American-English affects language policies and programs of the Philippines in terms of educational system;
to analyze how American-English affection was institutionalized in the educational system.
The special objectives of this study are:
to look at educational and language policies and see up to what extent these language policies and programs in educational system are influenced by English presence in Philippine society;
to find out the present status of the English language among Filipinos, as the result of bilingual educational system from 1974 until 1980s.
1.4. Significance of the Study
This study is particularly important because debates as to the reinstatement of English as the sole media of instruction in Philippine schools and universities are presently taking center stage given the steadily worsening performance of students in national entrance examinations and professional licensing exams given in English. Not a few blame the current Bilingual Education Policy of the Department of Education, which they contend only serves to confuse students given its dual aim of promoting both English and Filipino. Those who purposely diminish English importance in the country are to go against what the rest of the world is doing.
This research is connected with social development of tile Philippines in relation to the usage of English and development of Filipino (Tagalog) language since this language is still developing. The researcher hopes to give light on these points, to investigate the influences American - English has over the country's language policies and why it is constantly mired in Philippine language controversies, and also how to develop better language policies in bilingual education system.
1.5. Definition of Key Terms
1. Language Planning- Deliberate language change; changes in the system of language code or speaking or both that are planned by organizations that are established for such purpose or given a mandate to fulfill such purposes.
2. Bilingual Education - Simultaneous teaching of two more language dialects or vernaculars. In case of the Philippines, English and Pilipino / Filipino are to be taught in schools and colleges. Experiments were done in 1960- 1966 and proved the value of adequately trained teachers, carefully prepared materials, and excellent supervision. This study disproved notion that the teaching or use of three languages simultaneously would confuse children. (Rubin, J and Jernudd, B.(eds) 1975).
3. Pilipino/Filipino- Pilipino is the national language of the Philippines, an artificial language in development. From Pilippino a new language shall be developed, which will be called later as Filipino. Pilipino will then be replaced by Filipino as the national language. Pilipino is derived from Tagalog. Tagalog became the basis of the Pilipino language.
4. Tagalog- was the dialect spoken in the eight united Philippine provinces during Spanish colonial rule. It is the lingua franca of Manila and its neighboring provinces and is understood in almost of the part of Luzon. Manila is the seat of the Government; became the basis of Pilipino/Filipino. No other dialect is widely spoken or understood. It also dominates the Philippine cultural lifestyle. (www.angelfire.com/aka/RJPA/ Directory/ecolinguistics.html) 27.2.2006.
Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The writer has extensively covered studies and works of both Filipino and other foreign authorship in preparing for this study. The following works contributed and helped the researcher a great deal in this present study.
Regarding the early presence of American-English in the Philippines, the researcher obtained references from Cuesta (1958). Cuesta gave an account of the English language during the American Regime. It was stated that as early as 1903, the American government began sending Filipino students to American colleges and upon their return they were assigned to teach in public schools. She likewise delved into me major phases of the English language which proved difficult for Filipinos. These phases included pronunciation, grammar, rhetoric, style and idioms.
On the present Bilingual Education Policy (BEP), scholarly works have been written by authors like Pascasio (1973), Bonifacio (1977), Ramos (1990), Otanes, Sevilla, Gonzalez, Segovia and Sibayan (1988).
Gonzalez and Sibayan (1988) for instance, made a comprehensive study regarding the scholastic achievements nationwide after eleven years of the Bilingual Education Policy’s implementation. Also teacher competence and proficiency was measured through a battery of tests.
Sibayan and Gonzalez’s study revealed that: 1) almost all adults (administration, faculty and parents), except for the Pilipino faculty, were non-committal towards the BEP and were not favorably disposed to the expanded use of Pilipino; 2) Pilipino teachers in general, when compared with the rest of the faculty, fare badly and are not significantly better in Pilipino than their peers, and 3). Tagalog students enjoy a real advantage over non-Tagalogs. It is recommended by the survey team that compensatory education be given to students from minority groups to mitigate this inequality.
In a similar study to Sibayan and Gonzalez’s, Segovia (1988) investigated the BEP’s implementation in the tertiary level. Segovia and her team concluded that based on their findings, tertiary level administrators, teachers, professors, and students perceive Pilipino to be the language of unity and/or national identity; however, one can be a nationalist even without the facility for communication in Pilipino. The respondents perceive English as a language of socio-economic mobility, educational advancement and international understanding.
Sevilla’s (1988) study gave the writer an idea of the awareness levels regarding the BEP among parents and among government and non-government organizations. Sevilla’s study provided the basis for the writer’s report on English’ presence and utilization in the government and business scenes.
Of valuable assistance are the works of Fishman, Pascasio and Bowen on bilingualism included in Sibayan and Gonzalez’s edited work “Language Planning and the Building of a National Language” (1977).
Works related to the researcher’s topic are quite numerous. However, the above mentioned works provided the bulk of the materials used by the researcher in writing this study.
Chapters 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Framework
The framework from this study is a historical research which is based on the chronological events. This research is synthesized, abstracted and explored from theories and scientific thinking in order to solve the problem.
3.2. Research Method
In preparation for this study the researcher will trace the introduction of American English in the Philippines, using a historical approach. From there the researcher will consider the status of American English in the country at present, taking careful note of the gradual integration of American English into Philippine society, particularly education. It is the educational system which is the main channel through which language policies are carried out.
Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events (Borg, 1963). It qualifies as a scientific endeavor from the standpoint of its subscription to the same principles and the same general scholarship that characterizes all scientific research.
The values of historical research have been categorized by Hill and Garber (1950) as follows:
It enables solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past;
It throws light on present and future trends;
It stresses the relative importance and the effects of the various interactions that are to be found within all cultures;
It allows for the revolution of data in relation to selected hypothesis, theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past.
There are drawbacks to historical research. It is an attempt to reconstruct a previous age using data from the personal experiences of others, from documents and records. Researchers have to contend with inadequate information so that their reconstructions tend to be sketches rather than portraits.
Ultimately, historical research is concerned with a broad view of the conditions and not necessarily the specifics which bring them about, even though such a synthesis is rarely achieved without intense debate or controversy, especially on matters of detail. Despite these drawbacks, the ability of history to employ the past to predict the future, and to use the present to explain the past, gives it a dual and unique quality which makes it especially useful for all sorts of scholarly study and research.
Indeed the particular value of historical research in the field of education is unquestioned. It can yield insights into some educational problems that could not be achieved by any other means. Furthermore, it can help to establish a sound basis for further progress and change, and show how and why educational theories and practices developed. It enables educationalists to use former practices to evaluate newer, emerging ones and it can contribute to fuller understanding of the relationship between politics and education. These elements are always interrelated.
Historical research may be structured by a flexible sequence of stages beginning with the selection and evaluation of a problem or area of study. Then follows the definition of the problem in more precise terms, the selection of sources of data, collection, classification and processing of the data, and, finally, the evaluation and synthesis of the data into a balanced and objective account of the subject under investigation. The principle difference between the method of historical research and other research method used in education is highlighted by Borg:
“In historical research, it is especially important that the student carefully defines his problem and appraises its appropriateness before committing too fully. Many problems are not adaptable to historical research methods and cannot be adequately treated using this approach.” (Borg, 1963)
Once a topic has been selected and its potential and significance for historical research evaluated, the next stage is to define it more precisely, or delimit it so that a more potent analysis will result. Too broad or too vague a statement can result in the final report lacking direction or impact “Research must be a penetrating analysis of a limited problem, rather than the superficial examination of a broad area. The weapon of research is the rifle not the shotgun” (Best, 1970). Gottschalk (1951) recommends that four questions be asked in identifying a topic:
Where do the events take place?
Who are the people involved?
When do the events occur?
What kinds of human activity are involved?
As Travers (1969) suggests, the scope of a topic can be modified by adjusting the focus of any one of the four categories; the geographical area involved can be increased or decreased; more or fewer people can be included in the topic; the time span involved can be increased or decreased; and the human activity category can be broadened or narrowed.
The student must exercise strict self-control in his study of historical documents or he will find himself collecting much information that is interesting but is not related to his area of inquiry (Hockett, 1955).
This research approach is qualitative, which means the following:
(The researcher) captures and discovers meaning once he becomes immersed in the data.
Concepts are in the form of themes, motifs, generalizations, and taxonomies.
Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and are often specific to the individual setting or researcher.
Data are in the form of words from documents, observations, and transcripts.
Theory can be causal or non causal and is often inductive.
Research procedures are particular and replication is very rare.
Analysis proceeds by extracting themes or generalizations from evidence and organizing data to present a coherent, consistent picture (Neuman, 1994).
It is historical and chronological, putting all the historical data in chronological order. Due to limited sources, most of the research done for this work will be based on a survey of the published works of noted Philippine and foreign linguists, language planners, and educators.
3.3. Research Data
One of the principal differences between historical research and other forms of research is that historical research must deal with data that already exists.
“History is not science of direct observation, like chemistry or physics. The historian like the geologist interprets past events by the traces they have left; he deals with the evidence of man’s past acts and thought. But the historian, no less than scientist, must utilize evidence resulting on reliable observation. The difference in procedure is due to the fact that the historian usually does not make his own observations, and that those upon whose observations he must depend are, or were, often if not usually untrained observers. Historical method is...a process supplementary to observations, a process by which the historian attempts to test the truthfulness of the reports of observations made by others” (Hockett, 1955).
3.4. Research Instruments
Sources of data may be classified into two main groups: primary sources, which are the life blood of historical research; and secondary sources, which may be used in the absence of, or to supplement, primary data.
Primary sources of data have been described as those items that are original to the problem under study. Category two includes not only written and oral testimony given by actual participants or witnesses, but also the participants themselves. Whether or not these sources were meant for the intent purpose of passing on information is irrelevant. If a source is, intentionally or unintentionally, capable of transmitting a first-hand account of an event, it is considered a source of primary data.
Secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. This includes third person accounts etc. Best (1970) points out those secondary sources are of limited worth because of the errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another. The importance of using primary sources where possible cannot be stressed enough. The value, too, of secondary sources should not be minimized.
The review of the literature in other forms of educational research is regarded as a preparatory stage to gathering data and serves to acquaint researchers with previous research on the topics they are studying (Travers, 1969). The function of the review of the literature in historical research is different in that it provides the data for research; the researchers’ acceptance or otherwise of their hypotheses will depend on their selection of information from the review and the interpretation they put on it. Borg (1963) has identified other differences: one is that the historical researcher will have to peruse longer documents than the empirical researcher who normally studies articles very much more succinct and precise. And one final point document in education often consists of unpublished material and is therefore less accessible than reports of empirical studies in professional journals.
3.5. Scope and Research Location
3.5.1. Scope
The scope of this research is the influence of American-English on Philippine language planning and policy. The research work done on this work is primarily concerned itself with the investigation of these influences of American-English on Philippine language policies as implemented in the educational system and the effects thereof.
This study also gives a brief account of the still existing Philippine language controversy and the “entrenchment and assimilation” of American-English in Philippine Media, Government and the society as a whole.
It would be most ideal to be able to report on the actual processes that take place in the formulation. Planning and implementation of language policies and interviewing members of the Philippine language Cultivation Council and/or of the Language Planning Board could have been carried out. However due to time and resource constraints, and their unavailability for an audience, this remains to be an ideal.
3.5.2. Research Location
The research location was inhabitants of Manila, Dagupan City, Baguio City, and Ilocos region. The researcher met and interviewed them. The researcher will elaborate this topic later in the dissertation.
3.6. Data Collection Technique
Data and information gathered from records and documents must be carefully evaluated so as to attest their worth for the purpose of the particular study. Evaluation of historical data and information is often referred to historical criticism and the reliable data yielded by the process are known as historical evidence. Historical evidence has thus been described as that body of validated facts and information which can be accepted as trustworthy. Historical criticism is usually undertaken in two stages: first, the authenticity of the source is appraised; and second, the accuracy or worth of the data is evaluated. These two processes are known as external and internal criticism respectively.
External criticism is concerned with establishing the authenticity or genuineness of data. It authenticates the document (or other source) itself rather than the information it contains. It therefore sets out to uncover frauds, forgeries, hoaxes, inventions or distortions.
After the document authenticity has been established, the next task is to evaluate the accuracy and worth of the data contained therein. This presents a more difficult problem than external criticism does. The credibility of the author of the documents has to be established. A number of factors must be taken into account, that is 1) whether they were trained observers of the events, 2) kinds of their relationships to the events, 3) to what extent they were under pressure, from fear or vanity, to distort or omit facts, 4) what the intents of the authors of the documents were, 5) to what extent they were experts at recording those particular events, 6) they were too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give true picture, 7) how long after the event they recorded their account, and 8) whether they are in agreement with other independent witnesses.
A particular problem that arises from these questions is that of bias. There are three generally recognized sources of bias: those arising from the subject being interviewed, those arising from themselves as researchers and those arising from the subject-researcher interaction (Travers, 1969).
3.6.1. Data Collected from People
The researcher met people in Dagupan City and distributed questionnaires, and the respondents answered and the researcher collected the data in 1987. The discussion oh this topic will be discussed further in the dissertation.
3.6.2. Data Collected from Documents
The researcher collected documents from Philippine Government archives, and various bureaus. The discussion on these documents will be elaborated in the dissertation.
Bibliography
Alzona, E. 1932. History of Education in the Philippines: 1965-1930. 1st ed. Manila: University of the Philippines Press.
Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing a proposal, a thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.
The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher will ..." or "The research team will ...".
A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such, and you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper in perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
The researcher has chosen to study the language usage in the Philippines because the country is the classic example of local language policy. For over five hundred years this interference affected language usage in all sectors of life. The Philippine became an American territory on the day the Treaty of Paris was signed. The first and perhaps the master stroke in the plan to use education as an instrument of colonial policy, was the decision to use English as the medium of instruction. With American textbooks, Filipinos started learning not only a new language but also a new way of life, alien to their traditions. Based on Ethnological Databases in 1980, 52% of Filipinos in the Philippines claim to speak English as a second language. If accurate, this makes the Philippines one of the largest English speaking countries in the world. The use of English in almost every domain of Philippine life gave birth to a new variety of English, called Philippine English. Due to the multi-dialectical attribute of the Philippine, substrata varieties of Philippine English also exist (Agana, 1999).
Having lived and worked in the Philippines for a period of nearly eight nearly eight years, the researcher was constantly aware of the problems arising from this special situation. This personal experience will be invaluable in guiding the consideration of the issues and the proposals the researcher intends to make, based on this study, for future language policy.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The present language and educational situation serves as an impetus for the researcher to study the influences of the English language in the Philippines by tracing its presence and influences from the early 1800’s to the present by looking at the language and educational policies and programs formulated and implemented across the generations. In other words, the problem here deals with the historical development of English used in the Philippines and Filipino, the national language of the Philippines.
The problems to be discussed in this research are:
1. Why is English used as the medium of instruction in all schools and universities?
2. What is the importance of English usage in educational system in relation to student's social life and future opportunities?
To answer these questions, the writer embarked on an intensive research work geared towards the ample fulfillment of these answers and several outlying questions.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
The general objectives of this study are:
to analyze how American-English affects language policies and programs of the Philippines in terms of educational system;
to analyze how American-English affection was institutionalized in the educational system.
The special objectives of this study are:
to look at educational and language policies and see up to what extent these language policies and programs in educational system are influenced by English presence in Philippine society;
to find out the present status of the English language among Filipinos, as the result of bilingual educational system from 1974 until 1980s.
1.4. Significance of the Study
This study is particularly important because debates as to the reinstatement of English as the sole media of instruction in Philippine schools and universities are presently taking center stage given the steadily worsening performance of students in national entrance examinations and professional licensing exams given in English. Not a few blame the current Bilingual Education Policy of the Department of Education, which they contend only serves to confuse students given its dual aim of promoting both English and Filipino. Those who purposely diminish English importance in the country are to go against what the rest of the world is doing.
This research is connected with social development of tile Philippines in relation to the usage of English and development of Filipino (Tagalog) language since this language is still developing. The researcher hopes to give light on these points, to investigate the influences American - English has over the country's language policies and why it is constantly mired in Philippine language controversies, and also how to develop better language policies in bilingual education system.
1.5. Definition of Key Terms
1. Language Planning- Deliberate language change; changes in the system of language code or speaking or both that are planned by organizations that are established for such purpose or given a mandate to fulfill such purposes.
2. Bilingual Education - Simultaneous teaching of two more language dialects or vernaculars. In case of the Philippines, English and Pilipino / Filipino are to be taught in schools and colleges. Experiments were done in 1960- 1966 and proved the value of adequately trained teachers, carefully prepared materials, and excellent supervision. This study disproved notion that the teaching or use of three languages simultaneously would confuse children. (Rubin, J and Jernudd, B.(eds) 1975).
3. Pilipino/Filipino- Pilipino is the national language of the Philippines, an artificial language in development. From Pilippino a new language shall be developed, which will be called later as Filipino. Pilipino will then be replaced by Filipino as the national language. Pilipino is derived from Tagalog. Tagalog became the basis of the Pilipino language.
4. Tagalog- was the dialect spoken in the eight united Philippine provinces during Spanish colonial rule. It is the lingua franca of Manila and its neighboring provinces and is understood in almost of the part of Luzon. Manila is the seat of the Government; became the basis of Pilipino/Filipino. No other dialect is widely spoken or understood. It also dominates the Philippine cultural lifestyle. (www.angelfire.com/aka/RJPA/ Directory/ecolinguistics.html) 27.2.2006.
Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The writer has extensively covered studies and works of both Filipino and other foreign authorship in preparing for this study. The following works contributed and helped the researcher a great deal in this present study.
Regarding the early presence of American-English in the Philippines, the researcher obtained references from Cuesta (1958). Cuesta gave an account of the English language during the American Regime. It was stated that as early as 1903, the American government began sending Filipino students to American colleges and upon their return they were assigned to teach in public schools. She likewise delved into me major phases of the English language which proved difficult for Filipinos. These phases included pronunciation, grammar, rhetoric, style and idioms.
On the present Bilingual Education Policy (BEP), scholarly works have been written by authors like Pascasio (1973), Bonifacio (1977), Ramos (1990), Otanes, Sevilla, Gonzalez, Segovia and Sibayan (1988).
Gonzalez and Sibayan (1988) for instance, made a comprehensive study regarding the scholastic achievements nationwide after eleven years of the Bilingual Education Policy’s implementation. Also teacher competence and proficiency was measured through a battery of tests.
Sibayan and Gonzalez’s study revealed that: 1) almost all adults (administration, faculty and parents), except for the Pilipino faculty, were non-committal towards the BEP and were not favorably disposed to the expanded use of Pilipino; 2) Pilipino teachers in general, when compared with the rest of the faculty, fare badly and are not significantly better in Pilipino than their peers, and 3). Tagalog students enjoy a real advantage over non-Tagalogs. It is recommended by the survey team that compensatory education be given to students from minority groups to mitigate this inequality.
In a similar study to Sibayan and Gonzalez’s, Segovia (1988) investigated the BEP’s implementation in the tertiary level. Segovia and her team concluded that based on their findings, tertiary level administrators, teachers, professors, and students perceive Pilipino to be the language of unity and/or national identity; however, one can be a nationalist even without the facility for communication in Pilipino. The respondents perceive English as a language of socio-economic mobility, educational advancement and international understanding.
Sevilla’s (1988) study gave the writer an idea of the awareness levels regarding the BEP among parents and among government and non-government organizations. Sevilla’s study provided the basis for the writer’s report on English’ presence and utilization in the government and business scenes.
Of valuable assistance are the works of Fishman, Pascasio and Bowen on bilingualism included in Sibayan and Gonzalez’s edited work “Language Planning and the Building of a National Language” (1977).
Works related to the researcher’s topic are quite numerous. However, the above mentioned works provided the bulk of the materials used by the researcher in writing this study.
Chapters 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Framework
The framework from this study is a historical research which is based on the chronological events. This research is synthesized, abstracted and explored from theories and scientific thinking in order to solve the problem.
3.2. Research Method
In preparation for this study the researcher will trace the introduction of American English in the Philippines, using a historical approach. From there the researcher will consider the status of American English in the country at present, taking careful note of the gradual integration of American English into Philippine society, particularly education. It is the educational system which is the main channel through which language policies are carried out.
Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events (Borg, 1963). It qualifies as a scientific endeavor from the standpoint of its subscription to the same principles and the same general scholarship that characterizes all scientific research.
The values of historical research have been categorized by Hill and Garber (1950) as follows:
It enables solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past;
It throws light on present and future trends;
It stresses the relative importance and the effects of the various interactions that are to be found within all cultures;
It allows for the revolution of data in relation to selected hypothesis, theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past.
There are drawbacks to historical research. It is an attempt to reconstruct a previous age using data from the personal experiences of others, from documents and records. Researchers have to contend with inadequate information so that their reconstructions tend to be sketches rather than portraits.
Ultimately, historical research is concerned with a broad view of the conditions and not necessarily the specifics which bring them about, even though such a synthesis is rarely achieved without intense debate or controversy, especially on matters of detail. Despite these drawbacks, the ability of history to employ the past to predict the future, and to use the present to explain the past, gives it a dual and unique quality which makes it especially useful for all sorts of scholarly study and research.
Indeed the particular value of historical research in the field of education is unquestioned. It can yield insights into some educational problems that could not be achieved by any other means. Furthermore, it can help to establish a sound basis for further progress and change, and show how and why educational theories and practices developed. It enables educationalists to use former practices to evaluate newer, emerging ones and it can contribute to fuller understanding of the relationship between politics and education. These elements are always interrelated.
Historical research may be structured by a flexible sequence of stages beginning with the selection and evaluation of a problem or area of study. Then follows the definition of the problem in more precise terms, the selection of sources of data, collection, classification and processing of the data, and, finally, the evaluation and synthesis of the data into a balanced and objective account of the subject under investigation. The principle difference between the method of historical research and other research method used in education is highlighted by Borg:
“In historical research, it is especially important that the student carefully defines his problem and appraises its appropriateness before committing too fully. Many problems are not adaptable to historical research methods and cannot be adequately treated using this approach.” (Borg, 1963)
Once a topic has been selected and its potential and significance for historical research evaluated, the next stage is to define it more precisely, or delimit it so that a more potent analysis will result. Too broad or too vague a statement can result in the final report lacking direction or impact “Research must be a penetrating analysis of a limited problem, rather than the superficial examination of a broad area. The weapon of research is the rifle not the shotgun” (Best, 1970). Gottschalk (1951) recommends that four questions be asked in identifying a topic:
Where do the events take place?
Who are the people involved?
When do the events occur?
What kinds of human activity are involved?
As Travers (1969) suggests, the scope of a topic can be modified by adjusting the focus of any one of the four categories; the geographical area involved can be increased or decreased; more or fewer people can be included in the topic; the time span involved can be increased or decreased; and the human activity category can be broadened or narrowed.
The student must exercise strict self-control in his study of historical documents or he will find himself collecting much information that is interesting but is not related to his area of inquiry (Hockett, 1955).
This research approach is qualitative, which means the following:
(The researcher) captures and discovers meaning once he becomes immersed in the data.
Concepts are in the form of themes, motifs, generalizations, and taxonomies.
Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and are often specific to the individual setting or researcher.
Data are in the form of words from documents, observations, and transcripts.
Theory can be causal or non causal and is often inductive.
Research procedures are particular and replication is very rare.
Analysis proceeds by extracting themes or generalizations from evidence and organizing data to present a coherent, consistent picture (Neuman, 1994).
It is historical and chronological, putting all the historical data in chronological order. Due to limited sources, most of the research done for this work will be based on a survey of the published works of noted Philippine and foreign linguists, language planners, and educators.
3.3. Research Data
One of the principal differences between historical research and other forms of research is that historical research must deal with data that already exists.
“History is not science of direct observation, like chemistry or physics. The historian like the geologist interprets past events by the traces they have left; he deals with the evidence of man’s past acts and thought. But the historian, no less than scientist, must utilize evidence resulting on reliable observation. The difference in procedure is due to the fact that the historian usually does not make his own observations, and that those upon whose observations he must depend are, or were, often if not usually untrained observers. Historical method is...a process supplementary to observations, a process by which the historian attempts to test the truthfulness of the reports of observations made by others” (Hockett, 1955).
3.4. Research Instruments
Sources of data may be classified into two main groups: primary sources, which are the life blood of historical research; and secondary sources, which may be used in the absence of, or to supplement, primary data.
Primary sources of data have been described as those items that are original to the problem under study. Category two includes not only written and oral testimony given by actual participants or witnesses, but also the participants themselves. Whether or not these sources were meant for the intent purpose of passing on information is irrelevant. If a source is, intentionally or unintentionally, capable of transmitting a first-hand account of an event, it is considered a source of primary data.
Secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. This includes third person accounts etc. Best (1970) points out those secondary sources are of limited worth because of the errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another. The importance of using primary sources where possible cannot be stressed enough. The value, too, of secondary sources should not be minimized.
The review of the literature in other forms of educational research is regarded as a preparatory stage to gathering data and serves to acquaint researchers with previous research on the topics they are studying (Travers, 1969). The function of the review of the literature in historical research is different in that it provides the data for research; the researchers’ acceptance or otherwise of their hypotheses will depend on their selection of information from the review and the interpretation they put on it. Borg (1963) has identified other differences: one is that the historical researcher will have to peruse longer documents than the empirical researcher who normally studies articles very much more succinct and precise. And one final point document in education often consists of unpublished material and is therefore less accessible than reports of empirical studies in professional journals.
3.5. Scope and Research Location
3.5.1. Scope
The scope of this research is the influence of American-English on Philippine language planning and policy. The research work done on this work is primarily concerned itself with the investigation of these influences of American-English on Philippine language policies as implemented in the educational system and the effects thereof.
This study also gives a brief account of the still existing Philippine language controversy and the “entrenchment and assimilation” of American-English in Philippine Media, Government and the society as a whole.
It would be most ideal to be able to report on the actual processes that take place in the formulation. Planning and implementation of language policies and interviewing members of the Philippine language Cultivation Council and/or of the Language Planning Board could have been carried out. However due to time and resource constraints, and their unavailability for an audience, this remains to be an ideal.
3.5.2. Research Location
The research location was inhabitants of Manila, Dagupan City, Baguio City, and Ilocos region. The researcher met and interviewed them. The researcher will elaborate this topic later in the dissertation.
3.6. Data Collection Technique
Data and information gathered from records and documents must be carefully evaluated so as to attest their worth for the purpose of the particular study. Evaluation of historical data and information is often referred to historical criticism and the reliable data yielded by the process are known as historical evidence. Historical evidence has thus been described as that body of validated facts and information which can be accepted as trustworthy. Historical criticism is usually undertaken in two stages: first, the authenticity of the source is appraised; and second, the accuracy or worth of the data is evaluated. These two processes are known as external and internal criticism respectively.
External criticism is concerned with establishing the authenticity or genuineness of data. It authenticates the document (or other source) itself rather than the information it contains. It therefore sets out to uncover frauds, forgeries, hoaxes, inventions or distortions.
After the document authenticity has been established, the next task is to evaluate the accuracy and worth of the data contained therein. This presents a more difficult problem than external criticism does. The credibility of the author of the documents has to be established. A number of factors must be taken into account, that is 1) whether they were trained observers of the events, 2) kinds of their relationships to the events, 3) to what extent they were under pressure, from fear or vanity, to distort or omit facts, 4) what the intents of the authors of the documents were, 5) to what extent they were experts at recording those particular events, 6) they were too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give true picture, 7) how long after the event they recorded their account, and 8) whether they are in agreement with other independent witnesses.
A particular problem that arises from these questions is that of bias. There are three generally recognized sources of bias: those arising from the subject being interviewed, those arising from themselves as researchers and those arising from the subject-researcher interaction (Travers, 1969).
3.6.1. Data Collected from People
The researcher met people in Dagupan City and distributed questionnaires, and the respondents answered and the researcher collected the data in 1987. The discussion oh this topic will be discussed further in the dissertation.
3.6.2. Data Collected from Documents
The researcher collected documents from Philippine Government archives, and various bureaus. The discussion on these documents will be elaborated in the dissertation.
Bibliography
Alzona, E. 1932. History of Education in the Philippines: 1965-1930. 1st ed. Manila: University of the Philippines Press.
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